> [!NOTE]+ Meta > Author:: [[Roohollah Shamsizadeh]] > Date:: 2024 > Tags:: #Iran #monarchy > Source: Aria gallery, Tuesday 24 September 2024, [[Monarchy, Islam and Modernity - three frameworks for Iranian art and craft]] ## Text In this lecture, “Iranian Aesthetics”, will be examined with a discursive and inter-discursive approach. Aesthetics in Iran is influenced by three discursive domains: monarchy, religion, and modernism, within the classical, modern, and contemporary paradigms. The applied and visual arts have been influenced by these three discursive domains. The lexical system and discursive signs are defined within the three paradigms under these mentioned discourses. The vocabulary used in handicrafts and visual arts is affected by these discourses. In this discussion, the relationships between vocabulary and discourses will be examined. This lecture examines "Iranian aesthetics" from a discursive and inter-discursive perspective, analyzing how aesthetics in Iran has been influenced by three dominant discourses: monarchy, religion, and modernism, across the paradigms of classical, modern, and contemporary eras. These discourses have shaped the crafts and visual arts, and the vocabulary system and discursive signifiers within the three paradigms are defined under these mentioned discourses. The terminology used in handicrafts and visual arts has been influenced by these discourses. This discussion explores the relationships between words and discourses. Additionally, the historical joints regarding using the term "craft" to refer to traditional, functional, and visual arts in the artistic literature of Iran are examined. The broad scope of concepts and definitions related to craft from a historical perspective, as well as the production of handicrafts, ranging from functional to non-functional objects, from mass-produced workshop items to unique artworks, and from pieces that merely embellish objects to those that focus on the aesthetic aspects of the work, present us with a spectrum of handicrafts as we understand them today. This means, unlike other forms of art, we are not dealing with a unified type of art that can be judged collectively or evaluated with a single framework. A discursive study, by examining grand narratives, offers a lens for categorizing some of the definitions, statements, signifiers, and vocabulary relevant to the study of handicrafts in Iran. ### Monarchical Discourse Monarchical discourse has played a prominent role in Iranian art throughout various periods. This discourse is indebted to three royal traditions: "pre-Islamic Iran," "the Arab rule era," and "the Turkic rule" in Iran. Iranian art, at least until the Qajar period and the rise of modernism, was deeply influenced by the monarchical discourse. Explaining all aspects of this discourse in such a short space is not possible. However, two classical texts are mentioned as examples. The first is the introduction by Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi to the Tansukh Nama-i Ilkhani from the Jawahirnama series, which are specialized texts on jewelry-making and the knowledge of gems in Iran. The second is the decree of Mohammad Shah Qajar to Abdullah Khan Naqqashbashi, the royal court painter, during the Qajar period, which refers to guilds associated with courtly art under the monarchical discourse. A. In the introduction to Jawahirnama by Nezami, edited by Iraj Afshar, 39 Jawahirnama in Arabic and Persian from the second to the thirteenth centuries AH are listed. In the introduction to Tansukh Nama, Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi mentions that the reason for compiling this Jawahirnama was the king's order to write a book on recognizing "Tara'if" (rarities): "Tara'if" in the plural form of tarifa refers to new and delicate things, rare fruits, and any precious rare object. The Jawahirnama was titled Tansukh Nama, where "Tansukh," a Turkish word, means a rare and precious gift or a strange object. In essence, this book can be considered a guide to identifying rare, strange, and valuable gifts. Khwaja considers the knowledge of gems a noble science; based on the content of the Jawahirnama, this knowledge extends beyond gemology to rare metals and non-metals, medicinal and aromatic substances, and spans various fields such as astronomy, mineralogy, geography, medicine, pharmacology, occult sciences, as well as historical narratives related to gems and ontological, philosophical, and aesthetic references. The introduction of jewelers is another section mentioned in these sources. In Mohammad Shah Qajar's decree to Abdullah Khan, the royal naqashbashi and chief architect, the professional connection between painters and other related guilds is outlined as follows: >"As the highly esteemed and capable Abdullah Khan, favored by the exalted court, has served with dedication since the early days of his presence in the court of the late, revered, and blessed king (may paradise be his abode), he was initially trained in the Naqashkhana (royal painting studio), thanks to his natural talents and innate skills. In a short time, he became a unique figure of his time, surpassing his peers. Based on this merit and by royal decree, he was granted the title of naqashbashi and elevated to the rank of 'Khan.' His proficiency in painting, designing structures, and overseeing construction projects became evident, leading to his appointment as mi'marbashi (chief architect), overseeing artisans and craftsmen of the royal estates. Now, in the time of our reign, he continues to serve at the highest levels, overseeing the renovation of royal estates inside and outside the city, including Qasr-e Qajar, Imamzadeh Qasim, and various gardens and palaces. B. In the early Qajar period, the royal naqashbashi (chief painter) and, in general, the court painters and artists were responsible not only for painting but also for mastering and supervising other artistic fields. The training of painters during the reigns of Fath-Ali Shah and Mohammad Shah, like their predecessors (Seljuk, Ilkhanid, Timurid, and Safavid periods), revolved around the traditional master-apprentice system. Painters learned the principles of drawing and painting, including techniques such as siah-qalam (monochrome drawing), oil painting, life depictions, landscape painting, floral and bird motifs, and portraiture from their masters. In addition to painting and sketching, they were also taught the fundamentals of gilding, miniature painting, lacquer painting, reverse glass painting, mural painting, and enamel painting. Hence, no distinction was made between fine arts and applied arts or handicrafts. All the arts were under the supervision of the royal naqashbashi. Painters, architects, engineers, enamelers, carpenters, stonecutters, potters, glassmakers, blacksmiths, housekeepers, gardeners, and well-diggers operated under the authority of the royal naqashbashi. ### Religious Discourse The Quran, narrations, and hadiths form the basis for analyzing religious discourse regarding craftsmanship and related vocabulary. Part of the linguistic system related to creation in the context of Islamic teachings includes the following terms: #### Khalq To create or bring into existence. (In summary, the stage of khalq refers to the phase of planning and measuring. Next is the stage of 'Bar,' another part of the creation process. Then, the taswir stage occurs, where the creation takes on form, and finally, the stage of dhara' comes, where the creation is propagated and multiplied.) #### Dhara' (with a fathah on the dh and a sukun on the r) A Quranic term meaning creation. Derivatives of this word in the Quran include dhurriyya (meaning offspring or descendants). It also refers to creation accompanied by manifestation, followed by its spreading or multiplication after creation. #### Fatir Means the one who splits and creates. It may also imply invention, initiation, or innovative creation. #### Insha' Refers to the initial act of creation, nurturing, and the continuation of what has been created. #### Son' Means performing an act with skill and precision. Therefore, every act of san' is considered a deed, but not every deed is a san'. Moreover, san' is specific to beings with intellect and reason, unlike animals. From this explanation, it becomes clear that san', in terms of craftsmanship, is broader than khalq since many tasks fall under san' but not under khalq.  Humans can be called "makers" (صنع), similar to the magic performed by the sorcerers at the time of Prophet Moses (PBUH), though these actions cannot be referred to as creation (خلق). God explains the reason for teaching the craft of armor-making to Prophet David (PBUH) to protect against the dangers of war. "And We taught him the craft of armor-making for you, so that it may protect you from the harm of war. Are you then thankful?" (Anbiya, 80). And you see the mountains, thinking they are stationary, while they move like the clouds; this is the work of Allah, who has perfected everything (Naml, 88). God first teaches Prophet David (PBUH) the skill of armor-making, and then commands precision in its craftsmanship. "And We taught him the craft of armor-making for you..." (Anbiya, 80). Also, God commands Prophet Noah (PBUH) to build the ark according to His instructions. "Build the Ark under Our eyes and according to Our revelation..." (Hud, 37). Deed (عمل): Craft. The Prophet of God (PBUH) said: "The craft of the righteous men of my nation is sewing." "The craft of the righteous women is spinning." Imam Ali (PBUH) said: "Do not seek haste in work, but rather seek its excellence, for people do not ask how quickly the work was completed; they ask about the quality of its craftsmanship." Profession (حرفه): Craft. Imam Ali (PBUH) said: "A person's profession is a treasure." Industries (صناعات): Imam Ali (PBUH) — in a letter to Malik al-Ashtar: "Then take good care of traders and craftsmen, and make a good recommendation regarding them, whether they are settled or travel with their wealth, or live off the toil of their bodies. For they are sources of benefits and causes of comfort, bringing it from distant and inaccessible places — from the deserts, seas, plains, and mountains — where people do not readily gather, nor have the courage to go. They are peaceful people, from whose mischief you need not fear, and they are reconciled people, from whom you need not fear harm." When he appointed him as the governor of Egypt, he wrote: "So accept my advice regarding traders and craftsmen, and make good recommendations to your subordinates concerning them, whether they are settled or travel with their wealth, or live by their own labor. For this group provides benefits and facilitates convenience by bringing goods from distant places on land, sea, plains, and mountains, to areas where people do not commonly go or dare to reach. Thus, they are peaceful people, whose strife is not feared, and they are reconciled people, from whose harm one need not fear." >We hereby confirm his authority over all the artisans and craftspeople, including painters, architects, engineers, enamelers, carpenters, stonecutters, potters, glassmakers, blacksmiths, gardeners, and musicians, as before. All of them must follow his guidance without deviation from his commands..." (Karimzadeh Tabrizi, 1984, Vol. 1, p. 303). Imam Ja'far Sadiq (PBUH) also elaborates on the topic of crafts and their types in a hadith, discussing their importance and prohibiting some of them. A hadith from Imam Ja'far Sadiq (PBUH) on industries, from the book "Tuhaf al-Uqul": >The interpretation of industries: All forms of industries that the servants of God learn or teach others, such as writing, accounting, trading, goldsmithing, saddle-making, construction, weaving, laundering, sewing, and the crafting of various forms of imagery, except for images of living beings, and the creation of tools and instruments that benefit the people and are essential for their livelihood — their production, learning, and teaching is permissible, and so is using and working with them, whether for oneself or others. Even if these crafts and tools can be used for corruption and sin, or for aiding good or evil, there is no harm in their production and teaching, like writing, which may be used for corrupt purposes such as assisting unjust rulers. The same applies to knives, swords, spears, bows, and other instruments that can be directed towards either good or bad purposes. Learning and teaching these crafts and earning from them is permissible if they serve good causes for people. Interpretation of industries: >"Any kind of industry that people learn or teach others, such as writing, accounting, trade, goldsmithing, saddle-making, construction, weaving, laundry, tailoring, making various forms—except for image-making of living beings—and producing various tools and instruments that are needed by people and are beneficial to them, ensuring their livelihood and comfort. Hence, producing, teaching, and practicing all of these, whether for oneself or others, is lawful. Even if these industries and tools are used for corruption and sins, or used for both right and wrong, their production and teaching are not problematic. For example, writing might be used for spreading corruption and sedition, such as strengthening and supporting unjust rulers. Similarly, knives, swords, spears, bows, and other tools can be used for both good and evil purposes. Thus, learning and teaching them, receiving wages for them, and practicing them for someone who has good intentions is permissible. However, it is forbidden for anyone to transform these industries into tools of corruption and harm. The master and apprentice of these industries bear no sin or responsibility because their benefits to good purposes are greater, and the continuity of people’s lives depends on them. Indeed, the sin and punishment fall only on those who misuse these tools and industries in ways of corruption and forbidden acts. This is because God has only prohibited industries that are purely evil and entirely corrupt, such as making string instruments, flutes, chessboards, gambling tools, crosses, and idols—all of which are forbidden. Likewise, producing intoxicating beverages and anything that is purely corrupt and serves no benefit is forbidden. Learning, teaching, using, earning wages from such industries, or any kind of involvement in them is absolutely forbidden. However, if an industry can be used for both permissible and impermissible purposes, and if there is some good in it, then learning, teaching, and using it is lawful. The sin lies with those who use it unlawfully. This is the interpretation and explanation of the lawful means of livelihood for people and the teaching of all ways of earning and benefiting them." Interpretation of industries: >"Everything that the servants learn or teach to others from various types of industries, such as writing, accounting, trade, goldsmithing, saddle-making, building, weaving, laundry, tailoring, and making various forms—except those resembling living beings—and types of tools and equipment that are useful for people, upon which their well-being and sustenance depend, and which fulfill all their needs—doing, teaching, and practicing all of these, whether for oneself or for others, is lawful. Even if these industries and tools are sometimes used for corrupt purposes or sins, and even if they serve both truth and falsehood, there is no problem in making and teaching them. For example, writing may be used in corrupt ways, like supporting the unjust rulers. Similarly, knives, swords, spears, bows, and other tools may be used both for good and for evil. They are instruments that can assist in either direction. Therefore, learning, teaching, taking a wage for it, and working with them, for those who have good purposes in mind, is permissible for all creation. However, as for creating industries: any kind of industry that people learn or teach others, such as writing, accounting, trade, goldsmithing, saddle-making, construction, weaving, laundry, tailoring, making forms (except for images of living beings), and creating tools and instruments that people need for their benefits, well-being, and livelihoods—all these are lawful to produce, teach, and practice for oneself or others. Even if these industries and tools might be used for corruption and sin, or may be used for both truth and falsehood, their production and teaching are still permissible. Writing, for instance, might be used for corruption, such as supporting unjust rulers, or like knives, swords, spears, and bows which can be used for both good and evil purposes. Therefore, it is permissible to learn and teach them, to earn wages for them, and to use them for those with good intentions. But it is forbidden to transform these industries into tools for corruption or harm. The craftsman or student bears no sin or responsibility, as long as the benefit of these industries serves good purposes. Life's continuity depends on them. Sin and punishment only fall on those who misuse these industries in corrupt and forbidden ways, as God only forbids industries that are purely corrupt and involve absolute evil, such as making musical instruments, gambling tools, crosses, and idols—all of which are forbidden. Similarly, the production of intoxicants and anything else that serves pure corruption and brings no benefit is forbidden. Any act of learning, teaching, using, or earning from such industries is entirely prohibited. However, industries that have both good and bad uses may be learned and taught, as long as they serve good purposes. The sin lies only with those who misuse them for unlawful purposes. This is the interpretation and explanation of the lawful means of earning a livelihood and teaching all profitable means of sustenance for people." ### The Discourse of Modernization The discourse of modernization began with the reign of the Qajar kings, especially during the Nasserite period, and brought changes and transformations to the foundations of Iranian art. The establishment of the Majma' al-Sanaye', the armory (Qurkhaneh), Dar al-Fonoun, the School of Fine Arts, and participation in international industrial exhibitions were some of the impacts of this discourse. #### Majma' al-Sanaye' In the book al-Ma'athir wa al-Athar regarding the institutions of the Nasserite era, the Majma' al-Sanaye' is described as follows: Majma' al-Sanaye' includes handicrafts such as epaulet-making, gold embroidery for military garments, cutting and sewing army uniforms, and the unique craft of metalworking and gold embroidery, which are distinguished specialities. It also includes fine paintings, gunsmithing, saber-making, and other related crafts and trades necessary for organizing the army, located in the Bazaar-e Sunduqdar in the Dar al-Khilafah of Tehran, established in the year 1269 A.H. (1853 C.E.), the sixth year of the royal reign." #### Qurkhaneh E'temad al-Saltaneh, the Minister of Publications under Nasir al-Din Shah (1256-1313 AH), says about the Qurkhaneh and casting Nasir al-Din Shah's statue in the Qurkhaneh: "On Saturday, the 10th of Safar 1306 AH, today is the statue's feast. This means that they have cast a mounted statue of His Majesty in the Qurkhaneh using iron. A good craft was used because it was very difficult to make such a statue without resources." The Qurkhaneh, also known as Jabbakhaneh, consists of two words: Qur, meaning lava or gunpowder in Turkish, and Khaneh, meaning house, which metaphorically refers to an armory where weapons and military equipment were made. Historically, it was part of the administrative and military organization, or the armaments department, from the Safavid to the Qajar period. During Nasir al-Din Shah's time, comprehensive industrial and artistic activities were officially launched. The Qurkhaneh was part of the royal administrative structure under the king's supervision. The use of the technical and engineering capabilities of this factory for producing and creating artworks and novel crafts such as statues, iron doors, cast railings, palace furniture, and similar items was impossible outside the Qurkhaneh. Therefore, we can consider this factory as the first industrial and artistic factory in Iran, which significantly influenced the art of this era and had no previous equivalent. #### Dar al-Fonoun The establishment of Dar al-Fonoun had a profound impact on the cultural, military, and scientific fate of Iranian society. This school served as a foundation for systematizing and organizing the country's scientific and cultural structure according to prevailing methods. #### In advanced European societies Iran's Dar al-Fonoun (House of Techniques) was established twenty years after Tokyo’s Dar al-Fonoun and three years after the founding of Dar al-Fonoun in Istanbul. The Iranian Dar al-Fonoun was inaugurated on the 5th of Safar, 1268 AH (January 28, 1852) by Nasir al-Din Shah. Initially, the academic disciplines at Dar al-Fonoun included engineering, infantry, cavalry, artillery, medicine and surgery, mineralogy, and natural sciences (physics, pharmacy, chemistry). Later, subjects such as history, geography, cartography, traditional medicine, mathematics, painting, and the languages of Persian, Arabic, French, and Russian were added. #### School of Fine Arts The Kamal al-Molk Painting School (School of Fine Arts) was founded in 1329 AH during the reign of Ahmad Shah in the Negarestan Garden. This school, known as the School of Fine Arts, taught painting, sculpture, pictorial carpet weaving, and some decorative crafts. #### School of Ancient Arts The School of Ancient Arts was established in 1930 under the leadership of Hossein Taherzadeh Behzad, offering disciplines such as miniature painting, marquetry, enamel work, carpet design, tile work, carpet weaving, pottery, and brocade weaving. #### State Vocational School of Isfahan Founded in 1936, it was divided into two branches: industrial arts and fine arts in 1948. #### Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Tehran The University of Tehran's Faculty of Fine Arts was established in 1940 with three disciplines: architecture, painting, and sculpture. In 1949, it became known as the Faculty of Fine Arts, and in 2005, it was renamed the College of Fine Arts. The industrial design discipline at Tehran University's Faculty of Fine Arts was introduced by Mohammad Amin Mirfendereski in the 1960s, and in the 1980s, following the Cultural Revolution, industrial design and handicrafts became independent disciplines in other universities. #### Workshops of the General Directorate of Fine Arts These workshops were formed in the late 1950s, continuing the work of the School of Ancient Arts. #### School of Decorative Arts The School of Decorative Arts (currently the Faculty of Applied Arts at the University of Art) was founded in 1960 through the efforts of Houshang Kazemi, a graduate of the graphic design department at Beaux-Arts in Paris. Iran's participation in international industrial and artistic exhibitions during the Qajar period: Iran participated in the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London in 1851 during the reign of Nasir al-Din Shah, showcasing carpets, Kermani shawls, termeh (a type of traditional brocade), brocade, silk, marquetry, pen cases, weapons, and military equipment, as well as traditional and industrial products. ![[Attachments/b5fa21f95bbc5bd338c9223c286a1178_MD5.png]] Paris International Exhibition 1889, with Nasir al-Din Shah attending. | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------- | | Discursive Fields and Lexical Systems Related to Industry (Handicrafts) | | | | is one of the words in the Holy Quran meaning creation. From its derivatives in the Quran, "Dhuriya" (with an intensified "r" and long "ya") refers to offspring and generations. "Dhara'" also means creating and revealing it, and disseminating it after creation. The status of "Dhara'" follows after creation. | Dhara’ | Religious Discourse | | Bringing into existence, creating, creation. (In summary, the stage of "Khalq" is a position of estimation and measurement.) | Khalq (Creation) | | | Means cleaving and creating. It can also mean innovation, invention, and initiating something creatively. | Fatir (Creator) | | | Creating, forming, and bringing into existence from nothingness, which is part of the stages of creation. | Bara': | | | Means performing work with skill and precision. | Sana' (Craftsmanship) | | | Depiction and delivery to the created being | Tasweer and Tahweel (Depiction and Delivery) | | | Refers to initiating creation, nurturing, and continuing what has been created. | Insha' (Continuation) | | | | Amal (Action) | | | | Herfa (Profession) | | | Risala Sanaye' by Abu Al-Qasim Mirfenderski (1050–970 A.H.), an Imamiyyah philosopher and mystic, written in Persian. In this treatise, he uses "industry" in a very broad sense, encompassing anything derived from human intellectual and practical powers. According to him, there isn't much distinction between industries and sciences, and fields such as astronomy, medicine, and the like are also considered industries. | Industry (Sanaye') | | | A Turkish word meaning a gift or something precious and strange. | Tansoukh | Royal Discourse | | In linguistic terms, the plural of "Tareefa," meaning new wealth, rare items, fruits, and anything rare. | Tara'if: | | | Trade and art. | Sanat (Industry) | | | Craftsman, professional, and artisan. | Peesha (Craft/Profession) | | | In "Moein's Dictionary," "Fan" is defined as both "industry" and "art." It also means craft and knowledge (deception and trickery). | Fan (Skill) | | | Al-Farabi, in his "Classification of the Sciences," defines and explains the science of "Heels." In Islamic civilization, this concept is tied to practical strategies and various industries. Al-Farabi divides the science of "Heels" into numerical and geometric fields. In his description of geometric "Heels," he mentions various industries, such as civil engineering, land surveying, astronomical instruments, music, weaponry, and even "Optical Tricks" used to enhance human vision, such as making burning mirrors, creating strange vessels, and developing tools for numerous industries, encompassing a wide range of all the industries of that time. | Science of Heels: | | | In Moein's Dictionary: "A means through which humanity expresses its belief regarding perfection; art, work, trade, profession; craft, strategy; all changes made by humans to natural materials to utilize them better and more effectively." "Sanatgar" (or industrialist) refers to someone engaged in industry. Industry refers to all changes made to natural materials by humans for usage and the product that results from it. | Sanat (Industry) | Modernity Discourse | | Craft and art | Handicrafts and Traditional Industry/Industrial Design/Industry | | | Fine Arts | Fine Arts | | | Traditional or ancient industries. | Old Industries | | | Applied arts (The application of design and aesthetics aimed at functionality and everyday use, including industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, and decorative arts). | Applied Arts | | | A French word commonly used in modern Persian, meaning technical work, the principles of industry, science, or art and profession. | Technique | | | "Sana'ee" refers to "artificial" as opposed to "natural." This field includes various branches such as metalwork, glasswork, marquetry, geometric patterns, pottery, tile work, and traditional textile weaving. | Industrial Arts | | | Craft | Handicrafts | | | Industry | Industrial Design | |